One of the great quotes attributed to the game of golf in describing the essence of the game and
the route to success, is “drive for show- putt for dough”. With reference to weight resistance training
a similar adage might be employed: “the rest is show, squat for dough”. In this manner it might be
said that squatting is to weight-training what putting is to golf After all, when you get down to the
short strokes the winning physique can only be achieved with a solid leg training program.

Of all the movements in the weight-resistance training portfolio squatting potentially offers the
greatest reward while at the same time it presents the greatest concern with regard to injury risk. This
reward-versus-risk concept bas created a major controversy as to whether or not the squatting exer-
cise should be included in the beginner’s weight-training
program. In fact many experts have gone on record as being
opposed to the squat exercise for any weight resistance
training regardless of the experience level.

To Squat or Not to Squat

Proper Form Essential
The question of whether the risk outweighs the reward
can best be answered by catering to the basic requirement
of providing perfect exercise execution in this demanding
exercise. It is crucial that the aspiring weight-training student
take the time to learn the many considerations of
proper movement methodology in order to reduce the risk
of injury. If performed correctly, the squat exercise should
not present any greater risk than any other exercise. The
essential problem of squatting (with respect to injury risk),
is the fact that few trainees learn the correct execution
technique. There can be no denying the fact that improper
execution would leave the trainee highly-vulnerable to injury.

Sensible Resistance Required
Another key aspect to reducing the risk of injury is to
exercise common sense in the selection of the resistance to
be used. Far too often, erstwhile trainees (and this includes
experienced lifters), pack on the plates in effort to move
“impressive” loads. What should be remembered is that
while the squat exercise allows for heavy loading, rampant
optimism has produced many serious injuries. “Overloading”
the bar establishes an immediate danger risk as form is
sacrificed when too much weight is used. Any deviation
from proper form sets the lifter up for both internal and
external injury potential. It is essential that the trainee work
within her/his capability in order to provide proper validation
of a favorable position on the “to squat or not to
squat” question.

One interesting point you may want to bear in mind
when considering the advantages of utilizing proper movement
methodology and proper weight selection in the squat
movement is that while squatting is utilized to develop the
muscles of the legs, only a rare few of the multitudes of
injuries that occur during squatting applications actually
occur to the muscles. A vast majority of the recorded injuries
are related to the lower back and to the knees. This resultant
would suggest that there exists a problem with the
applied methodology rather than with the movement per se.

Considerations for Injury Prevention
There are three basic postures of application associated
with the squatting movement:

- Deep Squat.
- Full Squat.
- Half Squat.

We shall now examine the main points attributed to
each.

Deep Squat
Internal Injury Risk
The deep squat is generally regarded as a “no-no” in
most weight-training circles (particularly in the arenas of
bodybuilding). Although, this posture is frequently used in
weight-lifting events as a manner of approach that provides
the lifter with an opportunity to get under the weight in a
recovery position before attempting to raise the weight
overhead in the “clean-and-jerk” and “snatch” events. With
reference to bodybuilding, and general weight-resistance
training applications however, the deep squat is seen as “too
risky” with respect to both internal (knee and lower back
injury risks), and external (getting pinned beneath the
weight) injury potential.

External Injury Risk
The deep squat posture sees the trainee is an exaggerated almost-touching-the-floor-with-the-seat posture
which stretches the knee ligaments to their most vulnerable position. Particularly stressed in the deep squat position is
the patella ligament which is stretched over the knee-cap. As well, the deep squat position forces the trainee to come
up through a large “sticking-point” while the muscles and ligaments are in their most stretched (and thus weakest), position which exposes the
trainee to a number of injury risks not the least of which is the risk of becoming “trapped” under the
bar.

Keep the Heels on the Floor
If the trainee succumbs to the natural tendency of coming up onto the toes during the descent to
the deep squat position, (commonly referred to as the catcher’s stance), there is considerable risk of
injury as the base of support for the lift is now restricted to small area of the toes. The toes are not
designed to withstand the forces placed upon them in the performance of heavy squats. The catcher’s
stance provides necessary leverage and is very effective in the performance of the duties related to a
baseball catcher. However, the catcher’s stance is not in any Way, effective (and can prove to be extremely
hazardous), to the athlete attempting to perform the squat exercise. If the toes cannot support
the lift, the trainee suffers a knee-buckling response which results in a forward hip thrust action
which creates an arching in the back. The arched-back posture exposes the trainee to a risk of jamming
the facet joints in the lower lumbar region.

Danger of Teetering Backwards
Conversely, if the trainee maintains contact with the floor with the complete region of the bottom
of the feet (including the heels), he/she is in danger of teetering backwards which can produce
injuries to the entire length of the spinal column as well as to the shoulders. The knees are also exposed
to injury if the trainee is unable to effectively initiate and sustain the concentric contraction
phase of the movement. If the trainee experiences difficulty in raising up from thee floor the tendency
is to shimmy upward with the strong side of the body leading the way. Uneven balance in pressure
upon the spinal column can easily produce injuries to the back. In addition, the exterior and medial
cruciate ligaments of the knees are suddenly exposed to high injury risk as well. Clearly, due to the
multitude of injury potential the deep squat position is not recommended.

Full Squat
The next important debate that bas raged on since the discovery of the squat movement is
whether or not full squats should be considered too dangerous and if so should half-squats be utilized
instead. Full squats are determined as squats that provide for the trainee to bend at the hips and
the knees so that the lower legs and the thighs would be at a virtual 90° angle. This posture would
allow for the thighs to be just below parallel to the floor.

Much research has been presented for both the proponents and the detractors of the full squat
application. None of the research supports the contention that full squats create increased injury potential.
The natural movement range for the muscles of the hips allow for a natural application of the
actions of hip flexion and hip extension and thus, affecting a fun squat (thighs just below parallel to
the floor position), represents no specific danger to the trainee.

Advantages of Full Squat
Due to the fact that full squat applications promote the natural execution of hip-flexion, the full
squat approach provides for both reduced injury-risk and enhanced growth and development potential
for the trainee. There are five main components associated with both of these important considerations.

- The efficiency of the applied methodology.
- The speed-of-contraction in the eccentric phase of the
movement.
- The time allotted to the transitory period from the concentric
to eccentric phases of the movement application.
- The congruence of the applied resistance/strength relationship.
- The intensity of the neural-impulse activity directed to the
muscles that comprise the region of the hips.

There will be more information provided on these areas of
consideration in the subsequent section on exercise execution.

Half Squat
Half squats is the application which sees a 45° angle formed
between the thighs and the lower legs. While it would seem logical
that the half-squat would be much safer than the full squat,
an analysis of the two squat positions reveals that there is in fact,
greater pressure exerted upon the knees during the transitory
period from the eccentric to the concentric contraction phases
of the movement during the half squat application than is experienced
during the execution of the full squat. In addition, due to
the fact that half squats increase the activation of the muscles of
the knee-joint rather than the muscles of the hip-joint, and due
to the fact that the movement application is performed with a
reduced range-of-motion, the half-squat application can be considered
more dangerous, and far less effective (with respect to
growth and development potential), than the full squat application.

Injury Risks Associated with Returning the
Weight
It should be noted that there is a high-risk of injury associated
with returning the weight back onto the rack. At the conclusion
of a set the muscles are drained and the trainee is left
staggering back to the rack. The primary concern now is getting
rid of the weight and as quickly as possible. This is where the
problems arise. In their quest to “dump” the weight quickly, the
trainee often commits serious flaws in technique. The most
common error is that of using a thrusting action to throw the
weight back onto the rack.

Negative Results of Thrusting
In applying the thrusting action, the trainee is encouraged to
bend forward which encourages a dropping of the head action.
The spin is bent and the force vector now hits directly upon the
lower lumbar region. In addition, when there is a desperate need
to toss the bar back onto the rack the trainee misses the target
with gruesome results. The back can become more bent, establishing
increased injury risk to the spinal region and to the
knees. External injury risk is also increased significantly when ill
advised return actions are employed.

In order to ensure the safest, most efficient return of the
bar the trainee would be when-advised to walk the bar all the
way back to the rack using a vertical posture featuring a rigid
back and with the head held up. Once the bar is in contact with
the columns of the rack the trainee should now utilize hip and
knee flexion in lowering the bar onto the safety pins.

Proper Pin Placement
Note as well, the pins should be placed lower the shoulder
height in order to provide for the safe lift-off and return of the
bar. Most trainees utilize the below shoulder height position in
manner of providing for safe lift-off. Placing the pins higher
than shoulder height forces the trainee to rise up onto their toes
to lift the bar which is not an advisable practice. However, the
lower-than-shoulder-height placement of the pins often invokes
injury due to poor technique in the returning of the bar to the
pins. Frequently, the fatigued trainee will attempt to “dump” the
bar back onto the pins rather than lowering the bar by the utilization
of hip and knee flexion. The “dumping- action forces a
rounding of the back posture which establishes a high-risk position
of the body. The lower the pins, the more exaggerated the
lowering of the head and the rounding of the back response
which accentuates the risk of injury.

Caution Required in Returning the Weight
Treat the return of the weight with the same respect as the
rest of the exercise execution in order to lower the high risk of
injury associated with returning the weight. Returning the
weight to the safety pins is a matter of simply standing up
straight and then affecting the squat move by applying hip and
knee flexion while maintaining a straight and rigid position of
the back with the head held erect in lowering the weight slowly
and carefully onto the provided safety pins. It is – essential that the trainee reserve enough strength to
affect a squat (partial) movement in order to ensure the safe return of the weight.

Avoid “Dumping” the Weight
If the trainee is exhausted at the completion of the set then, quite naturally, he/she will want to
get rid of the weight in fastest, easiest manner possible. The easiest and fastest maneuver is the one
that sees the trainee bending at the hips (essentially establishing a “good morning” posture) and
“dumping” the weight onto the safety pins. To perform the “good-morning” posture with the loads
that are used for the squat exercise would be to send out an engraved invitation to injury. It requires
strong muscular contraction to combat the force of gravity; as such, it would be advisable to avoid
reaching a state of motor -unit exhaustion in the muscles of the legs in order to ensure that a proper
squat movement could be executed in manner of providing for the safe, efficient return of the bar
onto the rack.

Summary of Correct Exercise Execution
- Face the bar assuming a natural shoulder-width stance with the feet positioned with the toes
slightly outward.
- Utilize slight hip and knee flexion in order to achieve the desired preparatory posture. Adjust the
stance so that the bar is placed across the shoulders. Do not let the bar slide down the back during
the movement application. Frequently, the trainee, sensing the slipping of the weight, will
lean forward in effort to keep the bar in place. The forward lean position exposes the lower lumbar
region to in jury risk. As well, if the weight is placed too low on the back instead of on the
desired location atop the posterior region of the shoulders and across the upper portion of the
trapezius, the resistance will be supported to a large extent with the arms. With the shoulders in
the stretched (and thus vulnerable) position, they can easily become stretched or tom.
- Assume a natural grip with the hands placed just slightly-wider than-shoulder-width. Frequently,
trainees use a wide-grip that sees the arms almost fully extended and the wrists wrapped around
the bar. This position of the arms and the hands creates a natural tendency to roll the shoulders
forward. The rolling forward of the shoulders encourages a lowering of the head which further
encourages a resulting rounding of the back posture which, as outlined, creates a high-risk of injury
for the trainee. The wrist-around-the-bar position of the hands also encourages the trainee
to exert greater pressure on the knees as the force vector now comes down over the area of the
knees instead of being driven down through the area of the gluteals and hamstrings.
- Initiate the concentric contraction phase of the movement by utilizing knee and hip extension
and drive off the rear portion of the feet while making certain to keep the head up and the hips
down.
- You will want to utilize strong neural impulsing into the powerful quadriceps, hamstrings, and
gluteals in order to correctly execute the power phase of the movement. You will also want to
avoid “mapping-out” at the completion of the concentric contraction phase as the snapping action
could create a hyperextension effect upon the patella region. The snapping action could also
duress the lower lumbar region due to a sudden jamming of the facet- joints.
- Keeping the body straight with the back in a rigid, and flat position, and with the head held erect
with the chin up, slowly begin the eccentric contraction phase of the movement by Utilizing hip
and knee flexion. You will want to remember to avoid the tendency of raising the heels off the
floor during the execution of the eccentric contraction phase.
- Lower the weight slowly, and evenly, while maintaining a flat, rigid posture of the back. You will
need to concentrate fully in order to maintain the desired head-up/-hips-down posture.
- Slowly complete the eccentric contraction phase of the movement by utilizing hip and knee flexion
until the thighs are parallel to the floor. You will have to concentrate fully on avoiding the
natural tendency to rise up onto the toes during the completion of the eccentric contraction
phase of the movement.
- As you reach the finish position of the eccentric contraction phase of the movement you will
need to resist the urge to bounce into the subsequent concentric contraction by pausing for a full
count at the completion of the descent.

Keys to the Lift
- Utilize intelligent weight selection. Impress the crowd with you technique; not how much weight
it took to put you in the hospital.
- Apply slow speed-of-contraction movement applications.
- Concentrate fully throughout both the concentric and eccentric contraction portions of the lift.
Remember, is easy to forego proper form when performing the squat exercise. You must stay
mentally sharp during the execution of this exercise or you will pay a severe price!
- If you feel that you are in danger of breaking form if another “rep” is attempted, then simply
abort the set. Do not risk permanent injury in order to meet the predetermined quota of “reps”
you may have established for yourself.
- Remember to maintain the desired exercise posture and execution:

- Feet flat on the floor at all times.
- Back is to be held in a flat and rigid position at all times.
- Remember to keep the head erect and the hips down. Avoid lifting the head too high, as this
encourages a hyperextension posture of the back.
- Utilize hip flexion don’t just rely upon flexion action of the knees.
- Be sure to continue the eccentric contraction phase of the movement until the thighs are positioned
parallel to the floor.
- When you drive upward with the weight do so under control in order to avoid the general snapping
out action of the knees which creates a hyperextension effect upon the patella ligament.
- Utilize strong neural impulsing into the muscles that comprise the region of the hips in order to
ensure the strongest muscular response in effort to provide the safe, efficient execution of the
movement.

The “Abs”
Without question, the generally-referred to “abs” (region of the anterior and posterior abdominal
walls) emerge as the most neglected area of the entire muscular system. If you were to walk in to any
bustling health club at peak period you would expect to see the wall-to-wall mirrors reflecting a wallto-
wall sea of weight-training enthusiasts grunting and straining in pursuit of bigger muscles. Every
available bench in the heavy section will be bearing the burden of the maximum loading applied by a
plethora of training zealots, and the long line up to the pec-deck means you would be wise to opt for
a free-weight flye application instead. However, the number of people that are attacking their “abs”
can be readily accommodated with the utilization of a single sit-up board.

No one would consider preparing for a contest without including a very arduous abdominal routine
into the program. In fact no trainee could consider him/herself serious without the inclusion of
a comprehensive abdominal training program. Even occasional trainees would consider leaving out
their chest and back or shoulder routines. Leave out biceps and triceps? You must be staying out in
the sun too long! No one would leave their shoulders out of their training schematic nor would they
exclude their leg training from their program. How is it then that anyone could consider leaving out
their “ab” training for weeks on end? (If in fact, they had a abdominal routine to leave out). The
same degree of devotion that is paid to the other body parts should be extended to the abdominals;
otherwise hopes for a truly well-developed physique cannot be held with any degree of seriousness.

Location and Function
As a logical pre-requisite to any body-part training it would be necessary to garner a complete
understanding of the muscles that comprise the particular region under scrutiny before any attempt
was made to explain the proper movement methodology of the muscles, or any effort was made to
develop a routine of exercises for the specific body part. When reference is made to the abdominal
wall (anterior, posterior regions) the considerations for the importance of gaining a thorough awareness
of the muscles of the region takes on even greater significance.

In order to provide for a well-designed program of exercises that would effectively stimulate the
muscles of the region and at the same time, provide for reduced injury-risk potential, it would be es-
sential that the trainee understand the relationship that exists between the muscles of the abdominal
wall (anterior and posterior regions), and the vertebral column. It is also vital that the trainee be
aware of the biomechanical association that is shared by the two regions in order to avoid wasting
time and energy in futile search of superior abdominal development. Even more crucial, is the concern
of avoiding the risk of serious injury which can often occur as a result of ignorance of proper
execution of the abdominal exercises. Aside from providing for the finishing touches to the wellhoned
physique, good abdominal development can provide for a measure of injury prevention for
the always highly-vulnerable lower lumbar region. However, poorly-advised movements can not only
fail to provide for the hoped-for results, but can lead directly to serious injury. Proper awareness of
the location and function of the muscles of the anterior and posterior abdominal would be of extreme
benefit to those seeking safe, efficient training approaches for the abdominal muscles.

No Skeletal Support
The abdominal region receives no skeletal support within the abdominal cavity. The area derives
its strength and integrity entirely from its muscle structure. The abdominal region is comprised of
three layers of muscle with each having its fibers running in a different direction. This phenomenon
of different fiber direction provides the required tension and strength which makes up for the lack of
bony structure in the area.

The abdominal muscles almost exclusively create the abdominal wall. These muscles provide
support, as well as protection, for the abdominal organs, and they provide assistance to the diaphragm
during respiration. The abdominal serve to flex the vertebral column and depress the ribs. The
contraction of the abdominal raises the intra-abdominal pressure which is necessary for defecation
and contributes to the stability of the thorax in times of strain such as heavy lifting. When the legs are
raised from a supine position the abdominal serve as fixators of the pelvis from which the hip-flexor
muscles originate.

Rectus Abdominis (A)
Location
The rectus abdominis muscle represents the main abdominal muscle and forms the prominent
ridges of muscle mass in the frontal abdominal region. The rectus abdominis is a narrow flat muscle
situated on the ventral aspect of the abdominal wall. The muscle runs vertically across the abdominal
wall from the crest of pubis bone to the cartilage of the fifth, sixth and seventh ribs. The rectus abdominis
has a right and left portion that is separated by a one-inch tendinous strip (linea alba). Each
rectus abdominis is covered by the fascia of the oblique and transversus muscles. Each set of rectus
abdominis is cut by three tendinous inscriptions that provide for a distinct division of muscle that
rises above the separation.

Function
The rectus abdominis act to compress the abdominal cavity and assist in the actions of forced
expiration, defecation, and urination. The rectus abdominis also acts to produce lateral-flexion (sidebends)
and also serves to flex the vertebral column during the action of spinal-flexion. The concepts
relating to the ability to produce spinal-flexion (as opposed to hip-flexion) form the crux of the discussions
on abdominal training and will be explored in detail in the pages that follow.

The Oblique Muscles

External Oblique (B)
Location
As the name would indicate, this muscle originates on the external surface of the rectus abdominis
on the lower eight ribs of the upper end of the ilium, the pubis crest, and the lower portion of the
linea alba. Its fibers run diagonally and upward and in a horizontal direction from the lower end of
the abdomen. The muscle inserts on the linea alba and the anterior portion of the iliac crest.

Function
The external oblique joins the rectus abdominis in the actions of forced expiration, defecation,
and urination. It also serves in the actions of flexion and rotation of the vertebral column.

Internal Oblique (C)
Location
The internal oblique lies just beneath and internally to the external oblique and its fibers run upward
and medially to connect with the internal intercostals muscles that cover the ribs. This muscle
officially on the iliac crest and the lumbodorsal fascia and inserts on the linea alba, the pubic crest,
and the first to fourth rib.

Function
Compresses the abdominopelvic cavity and assists in the action of flexion and rotation of the
vertebral column.
It should be noted that despite their location in the anterior region of the abdominal wall, the
above-listed abdominal muscles have a profound effect upon the function of the vertebral column.

Transversus Abdominis (D)
Location
This little known abdominal region muscle originates on the iliac crest, the lumbodorsal fascia
and the costal cartilages of the last six nos.

Function
The transversus abdominis compresses the abdominopelvic cavity.

Posterior Abdominal Wall
Quadratus Lumborum
Location
The quadratus lumborum is a long thick muscle which originates on the iliac crest and the iliolumbar
ligament and inserts on the lower region of the twelfth rib and the transverse process of the
upper lumbar vertebrae.

Function
This muscle has an even greater (direct) effect upon the lower back as it is responsible for the action
of pulling the thoracic cage towards the pelvis and is also involved in the action of same-side
abduction of the vertebral column. It assists the oblique muscles in the action of lateral-flexion (sidebends).

Erector Spinae Group
Iliocostalis Thoracis/Iliocostalis Lumbar/Longissimus Dorsi/Spinalis Dorsi

Location
The erector spinae muscles are all intertwined and as they all work in harmony with one another
they are considered as one muscle. This group provides the ridges aside a deep groove that is visible
in the lower back of highly-developed body-builders. The erector spinae group covers a large area
originating from the neck and running down into sacrum on both sides of the spine. Specifically
these muscles originate on the crest of the ilium, sacrum (lower surface), the borders of the lower
seven ribs, as well as the spinous process of the entire group of lumbar vertebrae and the lower four
thoracic vertebrae. These muscles all insert on the transverse processes of all the vertebrae.

Function
These muscles would be highly activated during the action of spinal rotation. In the twisting exercise
for example when the shoulders rotate around the spine, the spine provides the axis of rotation
with the externals working on one side in correlation with there opposite-side counterparts establishing
a pulling or torque action across the abdomen.

Iliopsoas group

Psoas Major
Location
The psoas major also comprises the region of the posterior abdominal wall but it acts principally
on the femur bone. It shall however be included in our discussion on the muscles of the posterior
abdominal wall. A long thick muscle, the psoas major originates lateral to the lumbar region of the
back and inserts on the vertebral discs of the lower lumbar region.

Function
The psoas major is involved in the action of hip-flexion which occurs during the leg-raise (off
the floor), seated knees-to-chest and vertical knees-to-chest exercises.

Iliacus
Location
The iliacus is a large triangular-shaped muscle that is situated on the lateral portion of the psoas
major. Its fibers run downward and inward most of which attach to the psoas tendon and inserts on
the lesser trochanter of the femur.

Function
As the muscle crosses over the hip-joint, it serves in the action of hip-flexion and joins in the actions
of the psoas major to function during the leg raise action (off the floor) or knees-to-chest
(seated and vertical) exercises.

Psoas Minor
Location
This muscle is a relatively ineffective muscle due to its long tendon and small muscle construction.
It originates from the last thoracic and first lumbar vertebrae and inserts on the pubic bone of
the pelvis.

Function
The psoas minor serves to support the action of hip-flexion of the psoas major and iliacus muscles.

Muscle Activation
It can be readily acknowledged that working the “abs” is hard work and even more discouraging
is the fact that it is extremely boring to most trainees. After all, where is the fun found in working so
hard and not gaining the satisfaction of witnessing a “pump”? Besides, ab routines rarely produce the
results that are achieved with the other body-part routines. Why don’t we achieve the same response
in the abs as we do with arms and legs and chest etc…? Well we just might be getting results that
simply are not showing because the muscle that is being developed is hidden under the layers of
excess weight that is all-too-frequently carried by the majority of the population (approximately
90%).

Considerations for the Actions of Spinal or Hip-flexion
In order to maximally stimulate the muscles of the abdominal region it is necessary to apply an
action of spinal-flexion. What frequently occurs is that in quest of developing his/her abdominals,
the trainee embarks earnestly on a routine of “so-called” abdominal exercise which, in fact, does not
emphasize the abdominal, but instead provide activation of the hip-joint (flexors and extensors)
muscles. Activation of the hip-joint does not provide maximum stimulation of the abdominal region,
and as a result, the individual’s abdominal region remains underdeveloped.

For example, have you ever felt compelled to put a halt to a series of sit-ups due to the fatigue
experienced in the frontal thighs (as opposed to the desired “attack region” of the abdominal?) This
is simply because the thighs were receiving the brunt of the load during the movement and as a result
the abdominal were left far less stimulated than they should have been in order to provide for maximum
growth and development.

Posterior Region
Perhaps the most overlooked exercises in the entire weight-resistance training inventory are
those movements designed to work the muscles of the calves. How many times have you seen great
bodybuilding structures ruined by a lack of well-developed calves? Good calves are necessary if physique
symmetry is to be accomplished, yet many trainees view calf-training as a nuisance, as something
that gets in the way of “real” training.

Calf-training should be treated with the same importance that is reserved for the other body
parts. No serious trainee would think of throwing in a chest workout whenever he thought that he
had enough energy, nor would he put in a shoulder routine when he thought that “it was probably
about time”.

How is it then that so many weight-resistance trainees treat the calves with such little respect? It
is even more puzzling when it is considered that diamond-shaped calves are the envy of every trainee
from neophyte to professional.

Some people offer the view that the calves get a workout every day, while we are walking around.
Sure, and my triceps work as I open doors, and my biceps when I drink my juice, and my forearms
when I cut my steak. If the calves were receiving proper attention via our daily activities, why is it
then that only the diligent trainers, (the ones who attack their calves with the same level of intensity
as their other body parts), are able to illustrate impressive calve development.

Location and Function
The area of the posterior region of the calves is
comprised of two main muscle sections; the gastrocnemius
and the soleus muscles. The gastrocnemius muscle
is the large muscle which forms the major portion of the
back of the calves. The soleus muscle is somewhat wider
and lies beneath the gastrocnemius, winding to the front
of the lower leg providing the calf region with frontal
width and girth.

Gastrocnemius (A)
Location
The gastrocnemius is comprised of two heads
(medial and lateral) in equal combination and originates
on the medial and lateral condyle of the femur of the
upper leg and attach to the calcaneus (heel bone) via the
Achilles tendon.

Function
Due to their connections to the femur the gastrocnemius
are involved in knee-joint action and are activated
during plantar flexion of the ankle.

Soleus (B)
Location
Beneath the heads of the gastrocnemius rests the soleus
muscle which arises from the proximal end of the
tibia and head of the fibia bones of the lower leg.

Function
Because of their attachment to the lower leg, the soleus
muscles are only involved in plantar flexion of the
ankle joint (concentric contraction phase), and are not
involved in any actions involving the knee joint.
There are several other muscles that comprise the
posterior region of the calves but for purposes of expedience
we shall rest our investigation of the area with the
gastrocnemius and soleus muscles. The mass-mover exercises
(standing calf raise, donkey calf raise) would ac-
centuate both the gastrocnemius and the soleus muscles. The seated calf raise exercise would accentuate
the soleus muscle.

Muscle Activation
Whenever we think of lower calf training we almost automatically think of training the posterior
region of the lower legs. The muscles of the posterior lower leg can provide more contractive power
per square centimeter than any other muscle in the entire human muscular system. The poster lower
leg is comprised mainly of the powerful gastrocnemius muscles that are supported by the less prominent,
but highly efficient soleus muscle.
Three basic movements will be presented for the posterior lower leg:

- Standing calf (heel) raise;
- Donkey calf (heel) raise;
- Seated calf (heel) raise.

- The standing calf raise allows for major loading providing for accentuated training of the posterior
lower leg. It should be noted, however, that caution should be utilized here as, frequently,
trainees are exposed to high injury risk potential to the knees, Achilles tendon, and lower back
due to improper weight selection.

The donkey calf raise exercise also allows for heavy loading but once again, caution should be
applied in order to alleviate the high injury risk (particularly to the lower back) associated with this
exercise (note: the partner-assisted donkey calf raise exercise carries with it significant injury risk and,
as such, extreme caution is required to once again reduce the injury risk. The specifics will be outlined
in detail in the appropriate section in this chapter).
The seated calf (heel) raise allows for a different accentuation to be placed upon the lower legs as
this movement also encourages an increased involvement of the anterior portion of the calves due to
the 90° angle that is formed between the upper and lower legs.